Some people believe that the freedom of the
press can lead a society to welfare and happiness and provide the means
of development and progress of a country. Saied Jamal Al – Din Asad
Abadi, who is one of the contemporary great thinkers and outstanding
figures of the present age; it is the ideas that are prevalent about the
press.
1 . Introduction: Some people believe that the freedom of the
press can lead a society to welfare and happiness and provide the means
of development and progress of a country. Saied Jamal Al – Din Asad
Abadi, who is one of the contemporary great thinkers and outstanding
figures of the present age; it is the ideas that are prevalent about the
press. He has considered the existence of freedom as one of the
important and affective reasons on the development and progress of the
European countries; he says: “one of the means that has led to the
development of the western countries is freedom of the press. This
freedom makes it possible for the press to diffuse both bad and good
characteristics of the rulers. Those who have nice characteristics will
develop them and those who are afflicted with corruption and selfishness
have to quit them. No body has any objection to the freedom of the
press unless they have stood against the truth and rights or they have
blamed without reason. A person who is attacked by the press is able to
ask for his rights of which he has been bereaved in a court of law, but
in our press the situation is completely opposite to this. They
appreciate good deeds and they also appreciate the bad deeds. There is
no difference between good and bad; there is always exaggeration and the
reason for this is lack of inclination on the part of the rulers and
governors to correct the press.” ( 1 ) . Is, in fact as what Saied Jamal
Al – Din says, the press one of the means of development and progress
of societies or in today’s words is the progress of the society
dependant on the development of the free and independent of the press?
Basically what are the uses of the press in a society that can be
considered as the causes of progress and development? Does the press
have complete freedom or do they have some limitations and borders? The
present research aims at investigating and surveying the points of view
of Imam Khomeini about the position and uses of the press. Therefore
answering the above questions in the thoughts of Imam Khomeini (R. T.
A.) would be our guide through the discussion of this research. The
freedom of the press that is considered in the domains of the political
freedom and in fact it is one of the most important tests of political
freedom. Political freedom in an Islamic society means that “the members
of the Islamic society, and not a special group or class or the
families of a special race, have effects and roles in the formation and
leadership of a political regime; all should have such right. Political
freedom means that all individuals and people independent of their clan,
language, racial or religious relationships can lead the system to what
they think is a favorable situation. . . .
It is natural when there happens for the ideas and view points to be
different the idea that has more supporters (of course in the framework
the principles and values that have been accepted by that system) its
ideas and beliefs would be acceptable and the other have to follow them”
( 2 ) In the continuation of this definition we read: “When it is said
that in the Islamic society people have political freedom, it means that
they have the rights to choose to politically be active; they have the
rights to publish newspaper and media, to form groups, associations,
organizations, parties and political gathering and to express their
ideas and political views.” (3) . In fact it can be said that Political
freedom is expressing the mutual relationship between the rulers and the
civilians; that the people have roles in the formation and leading of
their political system and they are able to lead it to its perfect form;
of course by setting aside the tribal, language, racial and religious
inclinations that is available in all the people of a society. In any
way with regard to the definition of political freedom that is presented
here people are able to express their political ideas and thoughts by
the use of the press and thereby can take part in the political system
and accordingly play roles in it. They are able to lead the political
system tot heir goals and requirements; in addition they are able to
discuss their requirements and expectations with the political system.
In an Islamic political system all people can take part and be involved
in the management of the affairs of the country through their religious
teachings and learning. ( 4 ) . One of the best ways to express one’s
ideas and viewpoints is making use of the mass media. Independent press
and newspapers (those that do not belong to the political system) are in
fact apparent means that expose the requirements, desires critiques as
well as the objections of the people to the governors and those who are
responsible for the system. The dependant newspapers (those who speak
from the point of view of the authorities) reflect the ideas and points
of view of those who are in power as well as . . . . . . We might be
exempted from offering a definition for what “freedom of the press
means”. But in order to clarify this concept and the point of view of
this article I am hereby giving a definition of the term. Based on the
principle of “Freedom of the Press” human beings have the rights to
publish their ideas and thinking through the written materials and the
press. In order to do this they need no permission or their ideas, to be
published, need no censorship” . ( 5 ) . Saied Jamal Aldin Asad Abadi
give us an interesting definition of the newspaper and it is : “The
meaning of the newspaper is that it should write the truth and open up
those niches that are beneficial for the nation; it should tell the
mistakes and then discuss the way that they can be corrected. It is not
good for a newspaper to fill the newspaper full of exaggerations and
overstatements which are not at all interesting. It is better that these
kinds of newspapers are not published by any one in order to prevent
themselves to be infamous and deplorable in the eyes of the people and
the nation.” ( 6 ) . Therefore in the ideas of Saied Jamal, newspaper
and in general mass media should try to express reality and publish what
is beneficial for the nation and not to cajole and flatter those who
are politically powerful. His holiness Imam Khomeini, in accounting for
the characteristics of the civilized nations, considers the existence of
the free press as its main features. In his ideas, in such societies
people have to be free to express their ideas and beliefs in the common
level and especially in the mass media. “A civilized nation is the one
which is free, its mass media are free and people are free to express
their ideas and thinking.” ( 7 ) .
2 . In the theoretical models of the
contemporary system of the press with regard to the dominant press and
political society of the country we are always facing with the opposing
and various points of view regarding the ideas and theory of Imam
Khomeini about the mass media and the press. The main question is what
the theoretical model dominant on the thinking of Imam Khomeini are.
About the system dominating the press system there has been quite a lot
of different and various theories by the theorists. ( 8 ) . Although
there is not enough opportunity and time to expound and explain all the
theoretical models of the media and press system, I hereby briefly refer
to most important one of these theories to choose for the theoretical
framework of the present research. All in all it is possible to discuss
the theoretical models dominant on the press system in the form of three
general theories: authoritarian; freedom and social responsibility. A.
The Authoritarian Theory: on the basis of this theory that has been much
the effects of the authoritarian ambience of the end of the
Renaissance, reality is something more than the result of the efforts of
the mass of the people; it is the result of the efforts of a few and
wise human beings who have the responsibility of leading the masses.
These wise men are the same ruling geniuses who have power over the
people due to their intelligence and better thoughts. They are the ones
who are responsible for leading and publishing knowledge. In other words
truth and reality are the two sides of the same coin and the nearer the
people are to the center the more they come close to the truth. In this
theory the media are mainly in the hands of the government and
therefore any protest and critique is regarded to be damaging and a
threat for the stability and immunity of the government and thus it is
opposed. In general it can be said it is the political geniuses in power
who decide whether a newspaper is printed or not. In fact based on this
model the geniuses think instead of the people and they make movements
and they take the responsibility to lead the thinking of the people. ( 9
) . In any way, this model has a minimalist point of view of the mass
media and their freedom. ( 10 ) . Therefore the territories and the
boundaries of the mass media is understood from the speeches and
thoughts of Imam Khomeini and accordingly they would ask for more lawful
and even unlawful means in this regard. According to this understanding
from the ideas and point of view of Imam Khomeini, one can see that he
not only did not consider the mass media and the newspapers appositive
means but also considered as a means for destroying and weakening of
religion and religious system of the society; they also are considered
as means of weakening the politico – religious system of the government
and therefore they are the means of destroying and the society. On the
basis of this model the existence of the free and independent press in
the Islamic society will lead to the weakening and insecurity of the
religious basses of the people and hence the weakening of the religious
institutes. Also in this point of view, it is possible that the free and
independent mass media and press that are active in the frame of law
endanger and threaten the national immunity and the civil order. . . . .
. . Therefore the mass media and the press should be in the service of
the rulers and they have to comply with whatever the rulers say or
wish. People do not understand what is good for them correctly and
therefore the rulers decide for them and thus the newspapers should be
restricted more. This point of view considers the press in the service
of the rulers and the political power; Of course it is possible that
such opposition to the news papers has its origins in the political and
party contests and motives. But the reality is that such point of view
can be seen clearly in the social level and the press system of the
country. B. Freedom Theory: This theory which is the result of the
growth of political democracy, religious freedom, growth of the free
trade and free economics as well as the philosophy of humanism decreased
the authoritative ambience. Accordingly it entailed a new concept named
freedom theory. In any way this theory become more dominant in the last
years of the 17th C. and the years of the 18th C. and continued into
the 19th C. Liberalism, as a newfangled social and political system, was
a framework in which different organizations including specially the
press, with regard to the dominant philosophical principles, played
their relative roles. This theory started from the 17th C. when England
saw that the government has the press activities under control to a
great extent. . . . . . . The government was making use of different and
various controls and censorships and justifying them that their freedom
is a threat for the immunity and the stability of the government. The
freedom seeking claims of the liberal thinkers were in fact reactions
against extreme use of power. In any way this theory is basically based
on the classical liberalism and the limited government, the government
of law, rejecting the abuse of power and dependant on discretion and
appreciation of the private property. Freedom is between the people and
people are responsible for their fate. Based on this theory the portion
of liberalism in the mass media includes insisting on personal
importance, dependence on the personal reasoning and the concept of
natural rights and freedom of religion, statement and the press is a
part of it. On the basis of this model human being is a rational and
wise animal with a special purpose and one should not look at it just as
a mere device. Human beings as a thoughtful organism are able to decide
about his advantages and can organize the surrounding areas of it. It
is a creature that is different from the other animals because of its
capability to think and remember, to make use of different experiences,
analyzing and coming to conclusion; he is a unique creature. The
fulfillment of the potential humanitarian dimensions is one of the final
goals that he wishes to achieve. Therefore the society and the
government should not have any goal except for the fulfillment of his
existential dimensions. ( 11 ) . . . . . . . IN any way this perspective
has an extreme point of view about the freedom of the press. A group
discuss Imam Khomeini’s point of view in this framework. They require
absolute freedom of the press out of Imam Khomeini’s speeches. ( 12 ) .
They are asking for the preparation of situations in which the
newspapers can reflect and show the events and truth as well as
realities in a better way. From this point of view the newspaper and the
press can step in the way for the progress, development and political
advancement of the society and bring with them happiness and felicity.
In addition in this perspective, not only the mass media and the press,
of course within the frame of law, are not regarded as the causes of
national insecurity and social disorder but also they are regarded as
strengthening means of social order and national security. From this
point of view the rulers as well as the political power are in the
service of the mass media and the press. In any way both of these
perspectives that we have referred to (limited and authoritative point
of view and the extremist and free point of view. . . . . .) express
their own interpretations of the speeches of Imam Khomeini about the
mass media and the press and they are making use of them for their own
benefits. The question here is which theory is more in accordance with
the ideas of Imam Khomeini? Is it possible to say that the ideas of Imam
Khomeini regarding the mass media and the press does not accord with
any one of thee two approaches and it discords with both and accordingly
we have to take a new i. e. the third point of view? . . . . . . The
answer to this question will be clarified in the third model. C. The
social responsibility Model: this model is in fact the completed form of
the freedom theory. In addition to accepting the freedom – seeking
functions of the mass media and the newspaper, it considers some other
special functions for it such as commitment and responsibility with
regard to the people and society. The main point of this theory is that
freedom and commitment are two sides of the same coin and as the mass
media and the newspaper are allowed to criticize the government and the
other organizations they have responsibility about immunity and the
national advantages and benefits ; they have to reflect the needs of the
people. Based on this theory the need of the people to have access to
the right and truthful information is superior to the need of the mass
media and the newspapers to complete freedom. The mass media and the
newspapers have to . . . . . . understand their missions and they have
to set them as the bases for their functional policies. This theory can
answer the needs of the society. But if the mass media and the
newspapers forget their missions, it is the duty of the other
organizations to supervise the basic function of the mass media and the
newspapers and make sure that these functions are done in the most
perfect way. The supporters of this theory say that: 1 . The mass media
and the newspapers should present a real, comprehensive and clear
explanation of the every day events 2 . The mass media and the
newspapers should be means for exchange of the ideas and for showing
critiques. 3 . The mass media and the newspapers should reflect all the
existing groups of the society; 4 . The mass media and the newspapers
should reflect and show the means and values of the society. 5 . The
mass media and the newspapers should have access to the true and right
information and they have to be updated. On the other hand people in
this theory have some commitments with regard to the mass media and the
newspapers. People have to understand that that the mass media and the
newspapers have strong powers and that this power is in the hands of a
few people and that the mass media and the newspapers are facing some
disadvantages as well. If in the freedom model what is focused at is the
negative aspect of freedom (freedom from external limitations and
restrictions . . . . . .), in the social responsibility theory it is
tried to emphasize the positive points of freedom i. e. freedom for the
sake of achieving nice goals and the basis of this theory the government
should not authorize freedom rather it should be strengthened and
developed actively and in necessary conditions they should take care of
the civilians. ( 13 ) . Here in this theory what is seen is a
perspective that can be located within the two previously mentioned
theories. It can be said that the appropriate and acceptable theory with
the speeches of Imam Khomeini id the theory of social responsibility.
Because in his ideas the media will have two different functions: They
can both move in the positive direction and enact the talents of the
people and prepare the way for the people to grow and thereby develop
the Islamic system; they have to commit to their commitments and
responsibilities. They can also move in the negative direction and
thereby they will make the society inactive, silent and aberrant and
they can move in the direction that is disadvantageous for the people;
in this way they move against their commitment and responsibility. . . .
. . . This theory can explain and expound the ideas and thinking of
Imam Khomeini about the mass media and the press both before the Islamic
Revolution and after the revolution. Before the Islamic revolution he
protested about the freedom of the mass media and the press in attacking
the sacred beliefs and things of the people and he asked for their
restrictions and limitation; why are these mass media and the presses
are free? Why they are attributing unmanly and wrong attributes? If the
clergy goes, the country will not have any supporter. Why the mass media
and the presses are free to this extent? ( 14 ) . In these cases Imam
Khomeini’s focus and concentration is on the subject that the mass media
and the press should preserve and keep the values of the people and
they have to avoid attacking sacred beliefs and values of the people as
well as the Islamic values that have been accepted by the people. . . . .
. . In addition it is at that time that we see he has talked about
lack of freedom for the mass media and the press; he is criticizing the
regime for and says why does not the regime pass a law based on which
the mass media and the presses are free so that they may discuss what
ever they may believe in? “You sit down and act based on the
constitution law. The constitutional law has freed the mass media and
the press; do you let them be free? Are we backward when we say act on
the constitutional law and let the mass media and the presses be free? .
. . . . . . ( 15 ) . What we want to say is that it is incumbent to act
on the basis of the constitutional law. The mass media and the press
are free; writing is free; and let them write subject matter. . . . . .(
16 ) . What is intended by Imam Khomeini here is that it is good if the
newspapers and the mass media can reflect and show the requirement of
the people and criticize the regime and its authorities as well as their
policies and no body is allowed to silence them or to apply censorship
on what they want to write. . . . . . . Therefore according to this
model there is no discrepancy in Imam Khomeini’s speeches about the mass
media and the presses and this is the best and the most appropriate
paradigm in the frame of which the speeches of Imam Khomeini can be
understood and interpreted. According to these ideas a third model is
formed about the thoughts of Imam Khomeini concerning the mass media and
the presses. From this perspective the mass media and the presses have a
two – fold application and function: They have to take care of the
benefits and advantages of the people and they have to try to clarify
and enlighten the people. They have to avoid the subject matters and
issues that are not beneficial for the people and the general welfare.
According to this approach whenever the government observes violation of
the law it takes action against tem and acts on its supervisory mission
that it has with regard to the mass media and the presses. In any way
this theory can be regarded as the appropriate or mediocre model for the
mass media and the presses and the ideas and thinking of Imam Khomeini
is understandable and decipherable in this theory. . . . . . .
3 . the
functions of the press in the society has been taken care of for various
and different reasons. One of these functions is that the mass media
and the presses can play roles in the political growth and development
of the society and the extension of the common culture. “In the western
countries the written works, the number of the books, magazines and the
press, the number and their variety, the degree of their accessibility
for the people, the degrees of their usefulness, the rate of people’s
references to the libraries, the ratio of the individual to the number
of the book, magazines and the mass media and the presses they buy as
well as . . . . . . are regarded as the major criteria of development
and progress.” ( 17 ) . At the present moment in our society the mass
media and the newspapers; the number and the variety of the newspaper in
our society is so much that they cover almost all the politico –
thinking movements in the society. On the other hand and in addition to
the number and the variety of the newspapers that are published the
number of the people that are studying them has notably increased. In
any way what we mean is to express this point that not only the role of
the press has not decreased in the society rather it has increased day
by day and step by step and it attracted more addressees to it. ( 18 )
.With regard to the accepted model to interpret the speeches of Imam
Khomeini i. e. the social responsibility model the newspaper will have a
two – fold mission each of which has a special function and attends to a
specific direction; In Imam Khomeini’s words: “The newspapers and the
mass media can develop a country and lead them to a path that is
advantageous for them; on the other hand they can also work vice –
versa. “ ( 20 ) . Therefore the managers of the newspapers and the mass
media should think about the responsibility and the role of these
important media in society and about their continuation of existence;
they should always bear the benefits and advantages of the society; they
should stop going to the extremes and try their best to take an
appropriate and middle position as well as take care of their social
responsibility. It is on this basis that Imam Khomeini expects the
newspapers and the mass media to appear in the form of a coach and lead
the society. “All the newspapers and the mass media are the coaches of
the society; they have to rear the society and the people living in it
and they have to serve the country and its welfare.” ( 21 ) . In this
speech he also refers to the educational role of the newspapers and the
mass media and they have been asked to serve the people and publish
their ideas and ideals. “The newspapers and the mass media should be in
the service of the country, the newspapers and the mass media should
reflect the ideas and the ideals of the nation; they should reflect what
our nation wants.” ( 22 ) . One should note that by serving the country
he meant that they have educational and humanitarian role. In this
regard he says: “The magazine should be in the service of the country;
it is to serve the country to rear, to rear young people, to make human
beings; to make brave human beings; to create thoughtful men to be
beneficial for the country” ( 23 ) . Therefore one important function of
the newspaper in the point of view of Imam Khomeini is making human
beings and thoughtful young men. In fact Imam Khomeini believes that the
newspapers and the mass media have important roles in the education of
the thoughtful men, scientists and future politicians of the Islamic
society. The newspapers and the mass media in the social responsibility
model has prevented the energy and the talent of the people to go astray
and instead they moved them in the direction in which their beliefs,
talents and energy are activated. It would be very terrible if they lead
the youths towards aberrations and lead them astray and afflict them
with vanity, absurdity perplexity. In any way, in as much as the future
of a country is to great extent dependant on the degree of the work and
efforts of its youths as well as the degree of knowledge, talent, zeal,
creativity and wisdom as well as originality they can reach, the
newspapers and the mass media can play an important and vital role in
this path. The other function of the media from the point of view of
Imam Khomeini is that the newspapers and the mass media are one of the
important factors for keeping freedom and independence of a country. The
continuation of freedom and independence that came into being with the
establishment of the Islamic revolution is dependant on the awareness
and vigilance of all different groups of the country; one of the most
important guards of this basic principle and slogan i. e. “Independence,
Freedom, Islamic Republic” is the newspapers and the mass media. Imam
Khomeini says : “if the magazine has a subject matter that moves the
nation, it should be for the independence of itself, for the freedom
itself and for safe – keeping of the nation; if by magazine, such
magazine is meant, then it is an Islamic magazine and it is an Islamic
republic magazine.” ( 24 ) . In addition to the important role of the
newspapers and the mass media in human making, it has another function
and it is moving the nation in a way to keep Independence, Freedom,
Islamic Republic. It is natural that if the newspapers and the mass
media do their first mission i. e. human making and move in that
direction, it will be successful in the second role i. e. to move the
nation. Of course readiness to defend and keep one’s country’s freedom
and independence is fulfilled in many dimensions. It can be said that
one of the important functions of the newspapers and the mass media is
the role they play in political development and in extension of the
democratic ambience of the society. In theoretic look the newspapers and
the mass media play the role of a spotlight. In fact the newspapers and
the mass media as a spotlight make the political scene clear for the
people and they leave no dim angel. With the lightening of this
spotlight, the authorities and those who are in power, think that they
are exposed to the eyes of the common people. Therefore in this outlook
the media create an ambience that exposes the function of all the
authorities, organizations as well as governmental or non – governmental
institutes and let the people see them; accordingly the authorities are
exposed to the eyes of the people and they think they are responsible
for their incorrect and wrong deeds. On the other the newspapers and the
mass media can internalize the domination of the people. When there is
the issue of power balance among the powers and political powers can not
understand each other, it is newspapers and the mass media that try to
show the scene less violent than what it may be. The other basic
function of the press is that they try to remove the information
discrepancies. This means that by the re – distribution of the
information and knowledge they cause balance in the power balances. When
there is extremism in the minds of the people and then balances created
this balance shows itself in the society as well. Therefore the press
can create balance against great and power media such as radio and TV.
This is a kind of creation of democratic ambience and in this way they
help freedom, democracy and the domination of the people. ( 25 ) . (In
addition we can refer to another function of the press and that is the
newspapers and the mass media, as they are modern phenomena and
independent of what they are presenting to their addressees, cause the
free movement of free information and the free movement of information
will automatically result in the advent and strengthening of the new
class of people i .e. the middle class. This class that is available in
the third world countries and the developing countries are the main
transporters of democracy. Therefore the newspapers and the mass media
independent of what they transmit are useful and effective in the
process of democratization of the society. ( 26 ) . In any way it should
be noted that the newspapers and the mass media have been very
effective in the development and expansion of democracy and in this way
it is good to be called the forth source of power. The newspapers and
the mass media form a powerful political means that can be very
effective in reaching political development. Even it can be said that:
“The numerous number of the news means can be one of the many elements
of a regime as the number of the parties can be. This means that if the
various political parties are not accompanied with the variety of the
news means, they are imaginative and not real.” ( 27 ) . It is possible
to say that one of the major priority of the independent and free as
well as non – governmental newspapers and the mass media ensure the
existence of different ideas and points of view in apolitical regime and
system. It is in this way that one can tell whether autocracy is
dominated in a country or it is the people that are dominant. One of the
other duties of the newspapers and the mass media is criticizing the
performance of the authorities of the political regime and defending the
primary rights of the people against the political powers. Of course
what we have supposed is that the rulers in Iran are religious and it is
quite natural that the rights of the people are respected and their
logical and lawful requirements are met. In a Shiite religious system
people have a sense of identification with the government and
accordingly they show more sensitivity about their functions and
performances. Therefore the emergence of any aberration and deviation in
the political system and in the authorities of the system will be
accompanied with the reaction of the people and arouses the sense of
responsibility and they are made subjected to criticism and protest.
Without doubt in a government that is based on the religious teachings,
faithful, civilized and religious people can not observe injustice,
oppression and the propagation of aberrance and violence as well as . . .
. . . The political domination of religion means the existence of
justice and observing the rights of the people; it also means the
negation of corruption in society. Therefore people show reaction
against any oppression and suppression that is caused by any person or
group and they do not remain silent against them. The newspapers and the
mass media are appropriate means to transfer the voices of the people
and those who seek their rights to the ears of the authorities. A
researcher has understood from ayah No. 148 of Al _ Nisa Surah (Women
Verse) ( 28 ) that: “whenever there is a cruelty in society they should
be reflected in society. In addition the newspapers and the mass media
are the means of evaluation of the performance of the government and a
center for presenting the counseling ideas of the people. And we know
that such a mission is a valuable one from the point of Qur’an. ( 29 ) .
Of the other functions of the press from the point of view of Imam
Khomeini one should refer to the creation of hope and certainty among
people. The newspapers and the mass media in this role are the
messengers of hope and as means of strengthening the feeling of self –
confidence and certainty among people; therefore they have to avoid
whatever may dishearten and damage the felling of self – confidence of
the people. His holiness Imam Khomeini says: “our writers and our
reporters have to seek the ways that they can give hopes to the nation
and they should avoid disheartening of the people. They have to say we
are capable nation and not an incapable one. They should say we
ourselves can and in fact it is as such; we can but we have to have this
inclination. The best service that our writers can offer these days is
to show a nation that is standing against the west and east powers and
does not like to be dependant on the western and eastern powers; they
have to give hopes and encourage them to remain independent of the east
and west for ever. If these writers and these reporters, instead of
finding faults with one another and fighting each other,. Create hope in
the nation and create certainty among them, the nation will be
independent spiritually. It is the duty of the newspapers and the mass
media, their reporters and speakers to do so. By limiting and
restricting the freedom of the press, we neither mean the limitations
and restrictions that the cruel governments apply on their newspapers
and the mass media nor the restrictions and limitations that the cruel
countries (as well as the cruel and ignorant people who are do not
understand freedom) apply on their country. We mean those logical and
lawful restrictions that have been mentioned in the speeches of Imam
Khomeini and they have been approved in the constitutional and the
communal law. It is clear that the imposition limitations and
restrictions as well as provisions on the newspapers and the mass media
is because of the abuses that have been made of freedom and accordingly
endanger the benefits and welfare of the Islamic society. Such
restrictions and limitations are justifiable and understandable not in
terms of the authoritative model but on the basis of the social
responsibility theory and they do not have any discrepancy with the
freedom of the press. The provisions and restrictions to which Imam
Khomeini has referred in his speeches are: A. Law: This point of view of
Imam Khomeini can be seen in all stages of freedom very clearly. In
general, according to Imam Khomeini freedom is permitted in so far as it
does not pass the lawful and logical boundaries. In as much as law is
the provider of immunity and security for all the people and it arranges
the behavior of the people in society, it is thus a reliable and an
important source for the preservation and extensions of freedom and
especially for the newspapers and the mass media. It is in this way that
newspapers and the mass media are kept safe from the possible attacks
and aggressions and they will perform their commitment and
responsibility in the society. The Law No . 24 of the constitutional Law
says: “ The newspapers and the mass media are free in expressing their
points of view unless it endangers the principles of Islam or the public
rights. This is made clear by law.” In this principle the freedom of
the press has been considered obligatory and on the other hand it has
been restricted by two elements: “first that no danger should be aimed
at the principles of Islam and second it does not meddle with the
communal rights.” As it was mentioned in the end of the law of the
newspapers and the mass media, in the end of chapter No. 6 and 4,
approved by the parliament in 1364, these two important issues are
mentioned. ( 31 ) . His holiness Imam Khomeini (R. T. A.) has in many
cases considered freedom in the law boundaries: "In every country
freedom is in the boundary of law. People are not free to break the
laws." (3 2 ) . B: Scriptures: The newspapers are free to write subjects
and issues freely but are they free to insult the scriptures and holy
believes of the people? ( 33 ) . In some other cases he says: "it is
necessary that the newspapers correct themselves and do not betray Islam
and the Muslims. They should not pour the blood of the poor; they
should not propagate negative propaganda. They have to prevent the
intrigues." ( 34 ) . C: Intrigue, instigation and weakness: "We have
always mentioned during the victory of the Islamic revolution that the
freedom of the press is what we want. The media press has to avoid
printing the topics that instigate or weaken people and or those which
are against reality; they have to adapt themselves with the Islamic
Revolution; they have to avoid printing the articles that endanger the
Islamic Revolution and cause schism; because these are considered
intrigue themselves. " ( 35 ) . D. Blame, Lie, and Hearsay: "I am hereby
advising the people of the newspapers, the mass media as well as the
reporters to stop propagating hearsay and avoid publishing trashy issues
and wrong subjects just to increase their print – run. If the nation
feels there is a kind of intrigue or plot they will be treated in a
different way. Please do not abuse your freedom and do not quit the
paths of the people; avoid aggrandizing small and little events because
it is what the welfare of the people is dependant on it. " ( 36 ) . In
addition: ". . . . . . . are [ newspapers ] free to insult people? To
blame them? This is not freedom. Freedom can not be in any way intrigue.
If a newspaper wants to conduct an intrigue and follow the paths of the
enemy and try to promote the inimical deeds our nation would not accept
such freedom" ( 37 ) . E: Spitefulness and making negative uses of
freedom: "you, who are holding a pen and write for all, criticizing the
organizations, are free; but bear in mind if you were able to take your
pen and write even a word about these organizations three years ago?
They would have broken your pen and they would surely kill you? You do
not know how to appreciate freedom. Now freedom has become a means of
playing for some people. They think they have to write whatever their
heart asks or they think they have to say whatever their heart says." (
38 ) . In summing what has been so far said, it can be said that the
principal in Imam Khomeini's political thinking is based on the freedom
of the press. As in the beginning of the victory of the Islamic
revolution, freedom is absolutely dominant on the press and society. But
after this time since the media people have made a lot of abuses of
freedom; accordingly some rules have been laid down to arrange the foot
of the press. The speeches of the Imam Khomeini in this regard are
valuable. In this regard he says: "We have given them freedom, absolute
freedom; and in this few months about 200 parties and groups a lot of
newspapers, magazines and press have been published and no body
prevented it. While they have attacked our holy beliefs and values; you
have done the same with our government, our Islam and we did not do any
thing in return until we saw the riot and we understood that you are
rioters. After your riot has been proved we are not able to let you do
whatever you wish freely. We will eradicate you." ( 39 ) . Of this
speech of Imam Khomeini the theory of freedom is extracted. According to
him in the beginning of the Islamic Revolution all groups and parties
have had absolute freedom but they have abused this freedom and they
have gone so far as they tried to overthrow the newly established
Islamic government. As a result the freedom of the press has been to a
great extent limited and some restrictions have been laid on the press.
Some where else Imam Khomeini is emphasizing this point that: "From the
beginning of our revolution there were all kinds of freedom in Iran and
we have given all parties that were in the country some opportunities
and there was no prevention of any kind. But the intrigues started; when
they saw they are free the intrigues started; it was a pen – intrigues
(in written materials) and they wanted to deviate the path of our
nation; our nation is supporting freedom and it supports every kind of
freedom but it does not support intrigue and it does not support
falsehood." ( 40 ) . Therefore from the point of view Of Imam Khomeini
the principle is based on the freedom of the press and in so far as the
presses are committed to their responsibility and communal commitment
there would be restrictions on them. In the beginning of the Islamic
revolution this was the basis of treatment of the press but with the
start of some crises and issues that were the result of abusing this
holy principle, the short period of absolute freedom came to its end and
another theoretical method dominated the society. Of course there is
not complete agreement on this issue. Some believe that the theoretical
model of authoritarianism was dominated ( 41 ) and some others believe
that the theoretical model of social responsibility was dominated. What
is so clear is that the freedom of the beginning years of the Islamic
revolution was no more available but one should bear in mind that with
the establishment of the law (constitutional law as well as the laws of
the press approved by the Islamic Council) ( 42 ) the social
responsibility model became dominant. One of the researchers in the
political issues in explaining the lawfulness of the political regimes
in contemporary Iran has talked about different models such as freedom
and democracy, religion and justice as well as the age of progress; he
believes that the freedom principles has never been the source of the
political order. For this reason as soon as the political order has been
stabilized, freedom has been the first important issue that has gone
out of the political order. According to him there are different
political and authoritative as well as chaos periods and a political
system has always been taken into question and challenged so that
another political system takes its place. In this way the freedom and
democracy of this period is transient and as soon as a new system is
replaced it is omitted. He justifies deletion of the freedom model after
the victory of the Islamic Revolution and the establishment of a new
one by this model. Therefore in this approach other models of the
lawfulness of the political systems are regulatory; but the freedom and
democracy models have negating aspects and they are criticizing the
existing political order and the political systems have always been
looking for them and they have looked for them. In any way the opponents
of the a political system by making use of democracy and freedom
models, challenge the existing system but after the establishment of the
new political order this model is set to oblivion; in other words it is
one of the first victims of the new order. But in fact the question is
that I f we can attribute such an issue to Imam Khomeini and think that
he has made use of the freedom and democracy models as a means against
the second Pahlavi regime and one can not see any sign of stability and
consistency inn his thinking and approach? In other words, did Imam
Khomeini made use of freedom as a means for disagreement with the
existing political order intentionally otherwise there was not the idea
of freedom in his thinking? My answer to this question is negative. It
seems that the idea of freedom and especially the freedom of the press
has not been there in the political thoughts just as a means to fight
with the established political systems. As it was previously mentioned
the analysis and the explanation of the freedom of the press in the
thoughts of Imam Khomeini is more than any other model in accordance
with the social responsibility and nothing else. It is with regard to
this theoretical model that one can investigate the ideas of Imam
Khomeini in this regard in different periods (before the Islamic
revolution, the beginning years of the Islamic revolution and after
wards until his death). As he was defending the freedom of the press in
the Pahlavi regime, he is defending this condition in the Islamic
Revolution period; and as he was admonishing the people about the
endless and extreme freedom of the press in attacking the sacred beliefs
of the people in the Pahlavi regime and asked them not to attack them
he was stating this in the Islamic Revolution era and asked the press
people to keep the sanctum of the sacred issues and not to threaten
them. Therefore it can be understood that when the newspapers and the
press were limited when they were moving towards overthrowing of the
Political system of the Islamic Revolution; the mere establishment of
the new political order can not be an appropriate evidence for the
omission of freedom and democracy. In the conditions after the victory
of the Islamic revolution the press and the newspapers had a notable
advancement and even some of the newspapers were published by those
organizations that have fought with the newly establishment of the
political orders. It was natural that the forces of the new political
system, to preserve what they have fought for, have gone to towards
doing some works so that the political system has stability, consistency
and validity and thereby they wanted to decrease the existing chaos of
the society. And it was in this ay that the freedom period of the press
that was in fact tested came to its end and then the new age of social
responsibility started. In addition, holding about 20 different country –
wide elections with regard to the difficult and hard conditions such as
the imposed war and . . . . . . . are clear signs that different
aspects of freedom have been notable in the social responsibility model.
In addition freedom is regarded as one of the notable issues in the
political thoughts of Imam Khomeini; it was not just a means to make use
of in his fighting with the political order of that time. In addition
to that what we claim is that the freedom and democracy model and the
lawfulness of the political system have not ended in the years after the
victory of the Islamic revolution rather what has been changed and
altered is a transmission from the theoretical model of freedom to the
theoretical model of social responsibility.
5 . Summary and coming to a
conclusion out of what has so far been discussed: In this written
document there is not much space and opportunity to discuss the
dimensions and angels of this subject matter and to expound them. The
results and findings if this research are: 1 . Freedom of the press is
one of the most important and basic testimonies of political freedom. It
is possible to investigate and compare different political systems
through the degree of the press in those countries and to investigate
and compare the independence as well as dependence of different presses
in different countries; it is also possible to survey the degree of
democracy in those countries. In the countries in which the newspapers
and the media are regarded valuable and worthy and there is an
appropriate political ambience people freely express their ideas and
political thoughts within the framework of law. In the autocratic
societies free expressions of ideas in newspapers is not possible. The
theoretical model dominant on the political thinking of his holiness
Imam Khomeini about the media and the press is the social
responsibility. With this model it is possible to investigate and
analyze the thinking of Imam Khomeini and thereby answer, explain and
expound the possible oppositions that may happen in the text, context,
and his thinking. This theoretical model with the extensive limitations
that it imposes on the press and the people is in contrast with the
freedom model of Imam Khomeini. In addition the freedom model in Imam
Khomeini's point of view is valuable in so far as it is not abused. But
in as much as the society and the political groups have not yet achieved
that thinking maturity or their benefits does not allow to make use of
freedom in a correct and faultless way and without the supervision of
the supervisory organizations, therefore there is no way unless one
turns towards the theoretical model of social responsibility. This is
the completed form of the freedom theory. Based on this model there is
the third approach about the thinking of Imam Khomeini which presents an
appropriate and middle approach about the freedom of the press and
there is no extremism in it. Third: In the thinking of Imam Khomeini the
mass media and the press have two different applications: They can both
play a positive role in the growth and development of the society as
well as the political development and a negative role in leading the
society towards deviation, backwardness and illiteracy of the society
culturally and scientifically. The other positive function of the mass
media and the newspapers in the ideas and thinking of Imam Khomeini is
the role of leading and coaching the society. In other words the
newspapers and the mass media should act like a merciful teacher and a
nice coach and try to rear and grow the talents of the people of the
society. The other function of the mass media and the newspapers is to
preserve and guard the independence of the country and freedom in the
Islamic Revolution; they have to encourage and entice people to fulfill
such a role; this is the other duty of the mass media and the newspapers
in the Islamic regime. In addition in the absence of political parties
the mass media and the newspapers as well as the other social and civil
organizations play the role of a mediator between people and the rulers
and thereby they can criticize the function of the authorities and
expose what they do to the eyes of the common people. The clarification
of the situation and stating reality and truth will lead to the free
circulation of the information. Therefore in this application the duty
of the mass media and the newspapers is the critique of the performances
of the political authorities of the government and defending the
primary rights of the people against the rulers and the politically
powerful people. The other function of the mass media and the newspapers
from the point of view of Imam Khomeini and is the creation of hope in
the hearts of the people; they have to revitalize faith, the sense of
self – confidence and lack of dependence on the strangers and foreigners
in the minds and hearts of the people. Therefore in answering the first
question of this article it can be said that the mass media and the
newspapers have a very vital role in the extension and political
development of the society and thereby they will help the creation of
the social and civil organizations. In addition to this they will
provide the context to criticize the rulers and by showing and
broadcasting the truth and realities they will prepare the way to judge
the overall [performance of the government. Fourth: In as much as the
explanation of the speeches of Imam Khomeini is possible in the social
responsibility model it is quite natural that the mass media and the
newspapers, in addition to having complete freedom, suffer some
restrictions as well. In the ideas and thinking of Imam Khomeini, the
only thing that restricts and limits the mass media and the newspapers
is law. Therefore he believes in the principle of freedom but with in
the frame work of law; it is the law that ensures the survival and
welfare of the mass media and the newspapers and creates order in the
society. The other means of restriction for the media and the press are:
insulting the sacred, intrigue, enticement and weakening, blame, wrong
and false statement, making abuses of freedom as well as propagation of
corruption and aberration in the society. In any way to answer the
questions that have been stated in the beginning of this article it can
be said that nowadays one of the means of development and progress in
societies is the rise of the press and mass media and the newspapers.
Independent and free mass media and the newspapers as the fourth pillar
of power in the systems and regimes that claim democracy have vital
roles in leading the society to the wise and reasonable goals and
directions. On the basis of the theory of the social responsibility the
mass media and the newspapers do not have absolute freedom and there are
some lawful and logical limitations that they should abide by. Of
course these limitations are so much so that the freedom of statement of
the mass media and the press as well as their independence is not hurt;
they have to be the speakers of the people and should not be dependant
on the rulers and the powerful. It is in these conditions that the mass
media and the press act on their mission and commit to their
responsibility regarding society based on the social responsibility
theory.
Footnotes:
1 . The letters and the political documents of Saied Jamal Al – Din Asad
Abadi; compiled as a result of the efforst of Abu Al – Hassan Jamali
Asad Abadi . Third Ed . ( Tehran : Parastoo Books an imprint of Amir
Kabir Pub . Co . , 1360 . ) P . P . 69 – 70 .
2 . Hoseh Thinking . Fifth Year , Summer 1387 . No . 17 . P . 102. This
definition has been given by our supreme leader his holiness Ayat Allah
Khamenei. Stating this definition in addition to be a definition in the
Islamic thinking area is introducing a point of view that is dominant on
the Islamic Republic of Iran. It is interesting that among the
definitions that have been offered for the political freedom this
definition is more comprehensive. For more information refer to : Dr.
Manoochehr Taba Tabaei Moatameni . General Freedom and Human Right . (
Tehran: University of Tehran Pub . Co . 1370 ) . Karl Kohen. Democracy
. Trans . by : Fariborz Majidi . (Tehran: Kharazmi Pub . Co . 1373 );
Frans Newman Freedom, Power and Law. Trans . By : Ezzat Allah Foolad
Vand. (Tehran : Karazmi Pub . Co . ) .
3 . Hozeh Thinking . Ibid . P . 106 .
4 . The Principle of Ordering To de Good and To Avoid Bad . Counseling
Principle . The Advises of the Muslims's Imams . . . . . . and all
people to take part in the civil affairs. It is also possible to make
use of the following statement as well: Those who do not pay attention
to the affairs of the Muslims are not Muslims. Behar , Vol . 71 .
Printed in Beirut . P . 336 .
5 . Ali Agha Bakhsi and etal . The Dictionary Political Sciences . (
Tehran : The Center for the Scientific Doucuments and Information , 1375
) P . 151 . Abd _ al Rahim Talebof in defining the freedom of the press
writes: "A person is free to publish what he has written and he should
not be objected unless what he publishes creates an obstacle for freedom
or is corrupted. Dr. Saied Mahmoud Hashemi. Constitutional Law of the
Islamic Republic of Iran . ( Tehran : University of Shahid Beheshti Pub .
Co .1374 ) Vol . 1 . P . 5 . Also have a look at : Dr . Mohammad JAfar
Langaroodi . Terminology of Law . (Tehran: Ganj danesh Pub . Co . 1374 )
P . 32 .
6 . The letters and political document of Saied Jamal Al – Din Asad
Abadi under the efforts of Saied Hadi Khosro Shahi. P . 55 . Quoted from
Kazem GHoli Zadeh. The religious – Political thinking of Imam Khomeini )
. Tehran : The Center for the Strategic Research in the Presidential
department , 1377 ) P . 291 .
7 . Kowsar . The collection of Imam Khomeini's speeches , along with
what had happened in the revolution. (Tehran . The Institute for
Publishing and printing the Works of Imam Khomeini , 1371 ) Vol . 1 P .
346 . (28 / 8 / 57).
8 . About the theories related to the concept of freedom there has been
quite a lot of ideas which include 2 – 6 theories . In order to have the
complete grasp of these theories refer to interview of Intikhab
Newspaper with Dr. Ali Asghar Kia. 15 August 1999. No . 153 . P . 5 . It
should be noted that his interview with this newspaper has been
reprinted once more in another issue. 22 August 1999. No . 9 . 1311. Dr.
Ali Asghar Kia. Intikhab Newspaper, The same Iran Newspaper, Ibid.
10 . The Book of the 6th Festival of the Press; The General office for
propagation in the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance ( Tehran ,
First Ed . 1378 ) . P . 18 .
11 . Dr. Ali Asghar Kia, the two previously mentioned sources.
12 . The Book of the 6th Festival of the Press; Ibid . P . 18 .
13 : Dr. Ali Asghar Kia, the two previously mentioned sources.
14. Kowsar. Ibid. Vol . 1 . P. 25 . (11 / 4 / 1341 ) . These critical
speeches of Imam Khomeini indicates that the mass media and the press
were free to attack the sacred and the clergy in those days.
15 . Ibid . Vol . 1 . P . 115 . ( 16 / 1 / 1343 ) .
16 . Ibid. Vol . 1 P . 120 . (26 / 1 / 134 3 ) .
17. Mohammad Ibrahim Ansari Lari. Supervising the Press In Iran (Tehran : Soroush Pub . Co . 1375 ) P . 14 .
18 . Of course nowadays the electronic versions are taking place of the
written texts and it is predicted that the e – press would be better in
future. Therefore it is possible that after sometimes there is no track
of the printed and written press. Look at the Interview of Iran
Newspaper with theorists in this regard. 7 November 1999 . No . 1375 .
Fifth Year . P. 6 .
19 . Janus the first Mythological king of Latium in the present Italy;
According to this legend God had given clear sightedness to this king in
a way that he could see the past and the future. Seeing the past and
the future caused him to be presented with two faces. In the coins and
money of Rome the picture of this king has been printed with two faces.
Moris de Roge in a book called the Principle of the Political Science
draw an analogy between politics and this king for both have two
different faces. Moris de Roge Principle of the Political Science. Trans
. By : Dr . Abu Al – Fazl Ghazi ( Tehran , Dad Gostar 20 )
20 . 1376 Sahifeh Noor, Vol . 14 . P : 248 .
21 . Ibid . Vol . 6 . P . 193 .
22 : Ibid . Vol . 6 . p . 192 .
23 . Ibid . Vol . 8 . p . 24 .
24 . Ibid .
25 . The Book of the 6th Festival of the Press; Ibid . The General
office for propagation in the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance (
Tehran , First Ed . 1378 ) . P . 53 . as well as the Intikhab Newspaper
6 may 1999. P. 8 .
26 . Ibid . P . 53 . as well as the Intikhab Newspaper . P. 8 .
27 . Moris de Roge . Ibid . P . 183 . For more explanation refer to the pages 1836 – 181 .
28 . God does not like a harsh voice which is cursing unless someone has
suppressed him and be sure that God is the a knowledgeable listener.
Trans . By : Baha Al – Din Khorram Shahi. It should be said that in many
ayahs it is advised to speak calm and raising voice has been regarded
as bad. The only exception is where someone has done injustice to the
other and in this case it is when he has lost his sense of self –
control In order for more clarification refer to Baha Al -0 Din Khoram
Shahi under this ayah.
29 . Dr . Mehdi Husseinian Rad . "The Freedom boundary of the media, a
long lasting clash in Iran". Sobh Emrooz Newspaper. 4 may 1999. P . 6 .
30 . Sahifeh Noor . Vol 13 . P . 286 – 287 . 19 / 1 / 1981 .
31 . Examples of Causing disorder in the principle of Islam in the laws
of the newspapers and the press are: 1. The publication of the
blasphemous materials and the materials that are in contrast to the
Islamic principles and the propagation of the materials that might cause
damage to the Islamic Republic of Iran . 2 . Disdaining Islam and the
sacred values there 3 . Insulting the supreme leader and the religious
sources 4 . Promoting and propagating deviation and what is said to
avoid as well as publishing pictures that are in contract to the common
sense 5 . Promoting and propagating squander. In addition the examples
of causing disorder to the public rights are: 1 . Lying about the
authorities, organizations, institutions and any of the authorities of
the country; 2 . Insulting people and organizations the respect of whom
should be preserved; 3 . encouraging people and groups to do works that
are in contrast with the national immunity and the advantages of the
Islamic republic of Iran both in the country and out of the country. 4 .
Divulging and revealing the private documents and orders 5 . Publishing
the non – aboveboard negotiations of the parliament 6 . Publication of
the secret negotiation and non – aboveboard researches of the court
without lawful permission; 7 . creating discrepancy and disorder between
different groups of the country especially through racial and tribal
issues. 8 . plagiarism and quoting materials from the newspapers and the
parties as well as aberrant groups and the groups that are in contrast
with Islam in a way that this might be their promotion. The Press Crimes
that are mentioned in law are as follow: 1 . Insulting and blaming as
well as defamation of the people . 2 . Insulting Islam and religious
beliefs 3 . insulting the supreme leader , leadership council or the
religious sources. 4 . divulging secrets 5 . threat 6 . Promoting and
propagating deviation and what is said to avoid as well as publishing
pictures that are in contract to the common sense 7 . encouraging people
and groups to do works that are in contrast with the national immunity
and the advantages of the Islamic republic of Iran both in the country
and out of the country. 8 .publishing newspaper without permission 9 .
Imitation of another's name or sign ; quoting from Mohammad Ibrahim
Ansari Lari . Ibid . P . 171 , 172 and 173 as well as 178 .
32 . Sahifeh Noor . Vol . 7 . P . 8 june 1979 . and vol . 6 P . 271 .
33 . Ibid . Vol . 7 . P . 19 .
34 . Ibid . Vol . 5 . P . 130 .
35 . Ibid . Vol . 8 . P . 284 , 285 . 28 , August , 1979 .
36 . Ibid . Vol . 8 . P . 221 . 30 July 1979 .
37 . Ibid . P . 19 .
38 . Ibid . Vol . 13 . P . 252 . 5 January , 1981 .
39 . Ibid . Vol . 8 . P . 267 . 24 August 1979 .
40 . Ibid . Vol . 10 . P . 234 . 26 November 1979 .
41 . This perspective can studied in the following source: The Book of
the 6th Festival of the Press; The General office for propagation in the
Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance ( Tehran , First Ed . 1378 ) .
P . 54 and the Intekheb Newspaper of Thursday 6 may 1999. . P . 8 .
This model considers the situation before the Islamic revolution of Iran
that of the authoritative model and believes that in the beginning
years of the Revolution it was the freedom model that was dominant. The
followers of this model believe that after this stage and based on the
social condition the country enters the authoritative model. This model
believes that we have had the social responsibility model. 42 . The
first mass media and press law in the Islamic Republic of Iran was
approved by the council of the Islamic Revolution council of Iran in 11
August 1979 i .e . six months after the victory of the Islamic
Revolution. At the time that this law was passed still Iran had not
still the constitutional law. Therefore this law was not based on a
special law of the constitutional law and it was just merely an answer
to the disorder of the press at those times and it was a way to
supervise the publications and printing of different and various press
that were publishing and printing all over the country without any
restrictions and personal criteria. Quoted by Mohammad Ibrahim Ansari ,
Ibid . p . 118 and 119 . 43 . for more interpretation look at the
interview of the Sobh – e – Emrooz with Mohammad Reza Kashi. "Political
Legitimacy in Contemporary Iran " Monday 25th of October 1999 . No . 247
. P . 6 . Hozoor Magazine . No . 34 .
